The New Way of Thought

Bottom Up participation in Development Planning in Indonesia

2008-02-29T19:40:00.000-08:00

(An Overview on RAKORBANG Mechanisms)

Introduction

As far as I am concerned, people participation is always related with public needs and the limit of the government resources. Paul (1987, p2) has similar opinion that participation is “a matter on which there is considerable disagreement among development scholars and practitioners”. From this opinion have meanings that in participation always create disparate aspirations among stakeholders. However, I believe that its just negative point of view in people participation. Moreover many country implements the participation methods not only for support government program but also for empowering marginalized communities. Sabatier (1993:277) cited from Hjern et al, supported that participation especially bottom up method will result a dynamic interaction among multiple actors in the field with the government plan. Moreover He emphasizes that by using the participation method could develop high understanding among stakeholders such as governmental agencies, local government, industrial firms and community representatives to identify the community contribution in relevant programs. (Hjern et al. in Sabatier, 1993: 278).

For certain people, participation always related to politics or refers to voting mechanisms (Paul, 1987; Stiglitz, 2001). Moreover Paul explains that participation will be effective if the participants have been involved in or have concerns for the process. Most experts cannot deny that participation could generate transparencies in ruling policy in the long term development, however Stiglizts ( 1987) remains that by practicing participation method in planning will give guarantee that the program will succeed. This is because participation is a process of dialogue between each individual regarding certain policy that offered and could affect the participants (Stiglits, 2001).

Consequently, I would like to describe a bottom up community planning approach especially that conducted by The Indonesian government that called Rakorbang (Rapat Koordinasi Pembangunan-Development Coordination Program). In this Mechanism has several level of coordination meeting, from the lowest governmental level through the central government. This Mechanism was introduced in The Soeharto era for supporting his long-term development planning called REPELITA (National Five year Planning) that consisted of several short plans that implemented on GBHN (National Policy Guidelines). However, the result seems that the Indonesia policy in the Soeharto era was based on a top down policy, so what was wrong with the mechanism? The following paragraphs discuss this.

Historical Background

Indonesia has experienced three styles of leadership. Firstly, the Soekarno era is known as the transformation era from Dutch colonialism in to the independent nation (Bhattacharya & Pengestu, 1997, p393). Most Indonesians recognize this era as the Old Order. In this Order experienced many kind of governmental style, from parliamentary style to presidential style, from Union nation into Federation.

The second style is semi authoritarian under the General Soeharto regimes (King, 1982; Forrester, 1999). Moreover Liddle emphases that the political structure in the Soeharto era as “a steeply-ascending pyramid” in which Soeharto as individual and as president dominated the bureaucracy (Liddle, 1985). However, Soeharto created very structured mechanisms in planning. The well-known bottom up planning used in the Soeharto era is RAKORBANG. In this mechanisms involved almost all stakeholders in society but it seems like a top down mechanism. This is because in the Soeharto era, the bureaucracy is used as a tool for controlling people. In that time government by using three mechanisms; the military, Golkar (as party) and the bureaucracy to control the people. The “tripod” of power could control and limit the initiative if the initiatives could create danger or in stability to the government. Moreover this tripod could determine the membership of legislature. In other words, in that era citizen cannot act in opposition to the government. Therefore, the skills to apply various methods and techniques of participation did not improve because of the lack of opportunities to do so. The critical awareness of the importance of involving community and other components of civil society has been limited. The mechanism of channeling the aspiration and that of control by the people over various programs of development cannot represent the grass root needs.

The last Style is the reformation era. After the fall of Soeharto in July 1997, Indonesia has experienced a democratic era, in which all the authoritarian rules and laws were revised and the result the election mechanisms has been change (the World Bank Web site). In this era, Participation becoming popular and have paralyze with the implementations of Law 22/199 on local government and Law 25/199 on the fiscal balance between central government and the regions. Indonesia has experienced decentralization era. In the decentralization era, participation method in local government become compulsory, not only for absorbs the grass root aspiration but also to create clean and good governance. RAKORBANG mechanisms are still use in this era but with many varieties in different regions.

The Process

The Rakorbang mechanism is described by Minister of home affairs instruction letter (decree) number 50/987/SJ 2003. In that instruction mentions that in order to make the Plan and evaluation optimally and effective in regional development, which the regional development is a part of national development, Ministers of Home Affairs make guidance.

Rakorbang is a process of socialization, participation mechanism in planning from the lower governmental level until the central government (Minister of Home Affairs Web site 2007). Rakorbang is a mechanism in giving guidance in planning and evaluating regional development. In every governmental level Rakorbang has its own name. At the Villages level it is called as Musbangdes (Villages Development Coordination meeting), At the district level it is called UDKP ( District development unit), At the regency level it is called Musbangda II, At the provincial level it is called Musbangda I, and among provinces is grouped into Konregbang, and at the national level it is called Konasbang (Indonesia Ministry of Home Affairs web site, 2007)

Technically this mechanism is operates more at the district level, because at the village level it is just general aspiration absorption program whereas at the district level, it is a region unit for development. This unit has strategic position because in this unit there is mechanism that society and dialogue with the decision makers about the programs. Society could ask the background of the programs, the implementation methods and the evaluations.

There are four stages of UDKP. Firstly UDKAP is a process of dealing with the society’s wants and the government planning. In this stage the government make socialization for the program, what is the benefit from the program to the society. The second stage is UDKP as a drafting of the dealing result into district strategies planning. The next stage is to identify and construct the district investment programs, and the last stage is UDKAP as the framework for next development planning period (Indonesia Ministry of Home Affairs web site, 2007).

In Figure 1, it can clear been seen that this mechanisms is purely bottom up planning from Musbangdes until UDKP level that involves society but in Pra-Rakorbang in the UDKP proposal have to adjust with the strategic plan from governmental agencies. For example if there is proposal about increasing the quality services in village level that called posyandu (integrated Health services in Villages) must meet with the budget from health department in Regent level. Therefore the making proposal and approving a proposal based on the scale of priorities based on the department budget (GTZ, 2003). Moreover even though it meets with the department budget, it still needs local parliament approval.

Figure 2. National Planning Stages

Sources: Indonesia National Planning Board, 2007

Figure 2 portrays the national planning mechanism. In this level even though the higher-level government absorbs aspiration from the lowers level but the program must adjust with the national strategic planning that is constructed by the government with the parliament approval.

The actors

Most actors in Rakorbang mechanisms are government officials, from the lowers level of government in village until in National level. This is because the aspiration from societies must meet with the certain department strategic plan that is called RENSTRA (Strategic plan of government Agencies). Even though in decentralization era recently, government has modified the method of Rakorbang by involving civil society in each level of rakorbang.

In the Villages level, Rakorbangdes has main goal for proposing the village plan development. This level trying to identify the potencies and the handicaps that is faced by the Village and then try to construct the integrated plan for the village. Rakorbangdes is organized by the Village officer with the assistance from the district authority. In Rakorbangdes involve most the representative of the society such as farmer groups (kelompok Tani), LKMD (Villages Board representative), Person who has charismatic influence in societies, Groups of Household (RT-Rukun Tetangga) and other mass organization in village level (Minister of Home affairs instruction Number 050/987/SJ 2003).

In the district level (kecamatan), Rakorbang known as UDKP (Development unit at district level) involves at least all the villages’ chiefs that are under the district authority. It also involves other board district level groups such as the district police, mass organizations and person who have charismatic influence in societies (Minister of Home affairs instruction Number 050/987/SJ 2003).

At the Regencies and Provincial level, there are at least a number of representatives of civil society who are involved in this process. Some times the government officer which is mostly organized by Planning Board (BAPEDA), invite the civil society such as non government organizations, Universities, professional associations but just for giving advise or critiquing the planning but not to give a new idea. In this level just look like to matching the society aspiration that is absorbed in previous stages with the regent or municipally or province budget

In the national level, the actors mostly are the national planning board (BAPENAS) by inviting the technical department and their representatives from each province to give a broad overview in each region.

The strength of method

The RAKORBANG Mechanisms has strengths such as, that it could absorb street level aspiration from the lowers level of government, which means the development program could be implemented based on what people need and want. Secondly there will appear transparencies, because people are involves. For example, if a project that result from society aspiration and it then approved by government, when the projects is started, society will take a part at least as a watch dog for the project’s implementation. This idea has parallel with Stiglitz (2001, p.51) that the people’s involvement is a process to increase equity and recognize the common problems, which is in Indonesia corruption and non-transparent programs as a big issue. The last is if there is limited budget from government, people could contribute to development. the Indonesia term is called swadaya. Swadaya means that society has contributed in certain program. For example society would like to increase the quality of village road, therefore they collect the money from each village member to increase the road quality even though government has a limited budget for it.

Limitation of Methods

I personally believe that the benefit for bottom up planning is out weighs the negatives. However we cannot ignore the disadvantages. One of the limitations of the Rakorbang mechanism is the process. The process is too long especially if expected from National Budget, because several stages. Secondly mostly this must adjust with the priority of scale that plan is more important than others. This limitation is parallel with the GTZ (2003) opinion that Rakorbang is a mechanism to put people aspirations to the budgeting process by ranking and prioritizing the grass root idea. Thirdly there is potential to create diversions, because from each level they could be different points of view. On the other words Mattingly,M & Winarso, H. (2003) explain that the Rakorbang mechanisms will create spatial development planning.

Unintended consequences that have emerge

A bottom up approach actually needs spontaneity in generating ideas and thoughts. However in Rakorbang contexts is organized by certain level of government and have strict guidelines. As mentioned that if the procedures do not meet with the guidelines, mostly the program that they proposed will be not accommodated in the next level of Rakorbang. The Ministers of Home affairs instruction is to detail, and attend to give a uniform of bottom up planning approach whereas Indonesia has multicultural condition that possible in each regions has a different character from the others. Therefore government does not need to give detailed bottoms up techniques. Local government who would like to plan their future development could create their own style of bottom up approach.

Even though the Rakorbang mechanisms have been changed but mostly the stages still look like what the Soeharto’s regime implemented. Therefore if the central government tied up the procedures of Rakorbang, they will result in the same result as the Soeharto regimes that mostly used a Top Down approach with an authoritarian Style.

We cannot deny that Rakorbang mechanism could create special development programs (Mattingly,M & Winarso, H , 2003). But this bottom up mechanism could educated people to aware with the government program and triggered people to express they need and want. Moreover, bottom up planning will give basic planning to the government regarding the local situation and the problem that face by community (Mattingly,M & Winarso, H , 2003). Therefore the skill of field facilitators to translate the grass root aspiration to the good proposal is need. Besides that the facilitators should not only just assist the society just as an annual activities but the facilitators mush involve totally with the society. For example, the facilitator that mostly government officer, do act as government officer when they facilitate but try to integrated with society as a part.

REFERENCES

The Asia Foundation.(2003) Indonesian Rapid decentralization appraisal third report. Retrieved November 12, 2007 from http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/APCITY/UNPAN017807.pdf

GTZ. (2003) Decentralisation News Issue No. 49, 12 September. Retrieved November 12, 2007 from http://www.gtzsfdm.or.id/documents/dec_ind/newsletter/Newsletter49.pdf.

Indonesia National Planning Board. (2007) Retrieved November 12, 2007 from http://www.bappenas.go.id/index.php?module=Filemanager&func=download&pathext=ContentExpress/Kewilayahan%20I/Publikasi/ek-cge/&view=Bab-1-cge.pdf

Indonesia Ministry of Home Affairs website. (2007) Retrieved November 12, 2007 from http://www.depdagri.go.id/konten.php?nama=Glosari&start=7 ).

Samuel, P. (1987). Community Participation in Development Projects the World Bank Experience. Retrieved November 10, 2007 from: http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/1999/09/21/000178830_98101903572729/Rendered/PDF/multi_page.pdf

Sebatier, P.A.(1993). Top-Down and Bottom-Up Approaches to Implementation Research. The Policy Process: A Reader, Ed. M. Hill. 266-93. New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf.

King , Dwight. ( 1982). Indonesia's New Order as a Bureaucratic Polity, a Neo-Patrimonial Regime or a Bureaucratic Authoritarian Regime: What Difference Does it Make? in Benedict Anderson and Audrey Kahin, eds., Interpreting Indonesian Politics: Thirteen Contributzons to the Debate .Ithaca, New York: Cornell Modern Indonesia Project, pp. 104-16.

Liddle , R.W. (1985). Soeharto's Indonesia: Personal Rule and Political Institutions Pacific Affairs, Vol. 58, No. 1. Spring, pp. 68-90. Retrieved November 10, 2007 from: http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0030-851X%28198521%2958%3A1%3C68%3ASIPRAP%3E2.0.CO%3B2-Y

Mattingly,M & Winarso, H. (2003) Urban spatial planning and public capital investments: the experience of Indonesia’s integrated urban infrastructure investment programme. Retrieved November 12, 2007 from http://www.ucl.ac.uk/dpu/publications/working%20papers%20pdf/wp113.pdf

Wordl Bank web site . Reformasi Hukum (Law Reformation). Retrieved November 12 2007. From http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTINDONESIA/Resources/Publication/280016-1106130305439/617331-1110769011447/810296-1110769073153/Justice.pdf

FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO RADICAL ISLAM IN INDONESIA

2008-02-29T19:37:00.000-08:00

I personally believe that every religion teach about peace, togetherness and usefulness for neighbourhoods. However, since mid 1997, religiously motivated violence has become a trend in Indonesia. Bombing the places of worships, snipers, killing the priest and many other actions just to get public attention. These religious extremists mostly ignore the fact that their targets are innocent people and their community does not support their actions. This violence is mostly conducted by radical Islam group.

The general opinion from society is that radical Islam is a kind of fanatical perversion of Islam that deviates from the true Islamic thought. They propose that Islamic thought needs a new movement to modernize the Muslim world to reduce radical Islam.

This opinion misses the point. The nature of the terrorist threat is unambiguously Islamic and is not as relevant through Muslim tradition. As described by David Morley (1980, 51) that a result from individual learning in reading textual messages tends to be framed by cultural structure and conflict among society. Therefore radicalism is more likely develop in a long process. This essay will describe the factors that have contributed to radicalism of Islam in Indonesia. The first part will describe the historical position of Islam in Indonesia. The next part will describe the factors that have contributed to create Islamic radicalism. The last part will describe the future of Islamic movement in Indonesia and with brief suggestions in order to reducing religious radicalism and terror.

Historical Background of Islam in Indonesia

Islam was introduced through the west coast of Sumatra in 14^th century and then developed to the east in Java. Islam enters through Indonesia from merchant’s actives. Mostly they came from Gujarat. By the end of the fifteenth century Islam tend to dominant in Indonesia. (http://philtar.ucsm.ac.uk).

In the colonialist era, under Dutch administration Islam was de-marginalized. Dutch colonial policies emasculated the religious leader by gave them position in colonial administrations (Abuza, 2004). For example the mosque officials were placed under the lower region administrator.

In order to counter the Dutch policies, the Indonesian Islamic scholar founded a union that called Syarekat Islam (the Islamic League) some opinion mention this organization was founded in 1904 but the other mentioned it was founded in 1912. Following that year Muhammadiyah was founded by KH. Ahmad Dahlan. In 1926 The Nahdatul Ulama (the revival of religious scholars) was founded. These organizations mostly concentrate on developing their member welfare, social work, and education. Moreover these organizations avoided to involve in politics directly.

Under the Japanese administration in 1943, all Muslim organizations mush be folded into single organization. Therefore the Indonesian Muslim’s Consultative Council was founded. This organization called as Masyumi. After 1945 Masyumi became leading Indonesia political party in the war of independence against the Dutch (abuza, 2004).

After Independence, Indonesia tried to adopt the secular style. Under the Soekarno’s administration, the Islamic party tried to change the national ideology from secular ideology under Pancasila (five principals) into Islamic law. In 1947 under Sekar Marijan Kartosuwiryo committed to establish Indonesia as Islamic State. This movement get support spread to Central Java, Aceh and South Sulawesi. The effect from this movement still exists, especially in Aceh.

However, since independent, Islam in Indonesia has always been defined by tolerance, moderation and pluralism. Most Indonesian Muslims avoid literal interpretation and avoid violence in implement their faith. In the last decade, Muslim Thinkers have made some progressives intellectual and theoretical contributions in developing balance discourse over Islam and human rights, Islam and Democracy, and Islam and women’s Rights (Abuza, 2004). Whereas after Soeharto’s fall, the situation has changed. The emergence of democracy that allowed all elements to show their aspiration was the one factors that many Islamic organization tries to take a part. Some of them are moderate some of them are radicals.

Sidney Jones (2005. 3) categorises Islam movement in Indonesia into five groups. Firstly, those are who would like to change or amendment Indonesia constitution regarding the Jakarta Chapter (Piagam Jakarta) as definitive law. This groups try to achieved their goal in peaceful by joining in election and try to dominate the parliament. Secondly, those are who have slightly radical vision. These groups do not agree with democratisation proses and does not join in election but they also reject violence. The basic mission from these groups is to islamise the society, which means these groups try to give enlightenments in Islamic Syariah implementation in society. Therefore if they success to do that they believe Islamic Khilafa will develop by it self. This example from this group is Hizbut-Tharir. Thirdly, those are who want implemented Islamic law without compromising and willing to use violence in order to reducing the bad effect in Islamic law implementation. Such as Nightclubs, casino and karaoke bars if they still open in Ramadan month. The example from these groups is the Front Pembela Islam. The forth groups those are heavily influenced by Wahabism, who have a radical salafi interpretation in Islam and willing to use violence in order to defend their faith. These groups activist are interest in convincing other Muslim to purify their practices and remove bid’ah (unwarranted innovations in Islam). The last groups are those who use Jihad as the main instrument against the enemies of Islam. This groups use their interpretation in jihad as the using force against kafirs, or non-believers. The willing not only use defensive jihad but also the willing to destroy any obstacle in they way of upholding Islam.

The Main Factors in Triggering Radicalism

There are many factors that are manifested in terror and radicalism. Pudjiastuti (2002, 2) argues that there are three main problems that caused conflicts: (1) Economic and political conflict multidimensional and latent; (2) Political conflict movement and nationalism; and (3) Natural resources struggle, communal and seed of ethnic consciousness. However, I partly disagree with her argument because she just analyzes the internal factors and does not explain the international factors that might have a significant effect. Using Huntington’s theory about the clash of civilizations, I personally think that there are at least seven factors that have made a significant contribution to radicalism and violence in Indonesia.

The first factor is repressive administration. Actually Indonesia has had potential ethnic class since more than quarter century ago. This is because in Soeharto’s era there was no political space for pluralism (Pudjiastuti, 2002 : 2). Therefore there was just little civic freedom and Soeharto’s administration campaign his authoritarian as behalf of build Indonesia’s integrity and sovereignty as the utmost priority. (Waluyo, 2007: 7). Moreover that administration had been characterised by a high level of state control over politics and policy in which Soeharto as individual and as president dominated the bureaucracy (Liddle, 1985). King (1982) portrayed that Soeharto’s “New Order” regime can be understood as a bureaucratic-authoritarian regime. These repressive administration result social clash in Aceh for almost 15 years. In Lampung and several provinces, which have a “radical” view and have potency to disrupt national integrity and sovereignty, the administration always sent their military to reduce their activities (Abuza, 2003). Based on Moghaddam’s theory (2007, 70-72) this condition could be categorise into ground floor in which minority groups (the groups that was justify as rebellion) have ability to challenge the unfair situation with unpredictable efficient way. Mostly if the repressive administration is too strict will result in social conflict.

After the fall of Soeharto, Indonesia implemented more freedom in communications and democratisation. Some people have overreacted with each other. The democratic transition from authoritarian administration has led to some groups who always marginalised to act more actively and try to get a strategic position through democratic process. A minority react to get a better position either, whereas the majority which in the past always pushed by the administration to keep national integrity and sovereignty and this will become a problem. In the Maluku conflict, in Poso conflict are good examples for these cases. Another example is when Soeharto’s power was reduced by economic crisis and transferred the government style to democratic system has allowed the flourishing of radical Muslim groups seeking to promote their believe system (Abuza, 2003). Some of them tried to involve by joined in election and some other use intimidation and violence. Jemaah Islamiah and Laskar jihad (the Warriors of Jihad) have indicated use intimidation and violence.

The second factor is the transition in democratisation. After around 30 years under authoritarian administration, Indonesia has implemented more freely democratic system. In every province and local administration (region or municipality) have a right to held their own election in order to choose their regent or major or governor. Therefore, race to get administration position in election potentially would trigger social eruptions between two different groups that support different candidate. For example in Banyuwangi regent election was result in social dispute. In one hand the supporter of The winning Regent election contra the coalition from the looser candidate protesting and using religious symbol in order to undermining the election result, which need around 2 years to stabilize the local administrations.

The third factor is globalisations, In Huntington’s theory mentions that the world becoming a smaller place and make people easy to have interaction. Huntington (1993) argues that the frequencies of interaction between people from different ethnic would increase consciousness and awareness among each other. Moreover, His emphases that historical experience will make it easier to clash each other.

Another explanation looks at the impact of economic globalisation. Coker in Feste (2004, 2) describes that economic integration process resulting unbalance result between west and the rest of the world. What is more, according to Rene Girard in Vignolo (2003) mentioned that class between countries or groups as a result from competition each other. Where the leading countries attend to achieve more positive gains from international interaction whereas the “non leading” country get nothing would result in jealousy. In this theory of mimetic rivalry, Vignolo(2003) describes that the lack of familiarity with the leading economic countries such as in barriers distance, language, culture and in balance commercial relation between countries would support terrorisms. In a comprehensive empirical analysis, Li and Schaub in Feste (2004) discovered that economic globalisations are not the cause, but rather a possible partial solution to transnationals terrorism within countries. Yes indeed, economic rivalries are not the one cause. After Cold war when the USSR collapsed, the Super power America (USA) looking for sparring partner. Therefore, USA tried to reduce their support through Islamist groups that they Support in against Soviet in Afghanistan. The public knew that if Osama bin Laden was one of USA products. After 9/11 attach Super power coalition campaign to fight with Islamic Radicalism terror.

In Indonesia case, the violence actors mostly use revenge for the sorrow of another Muslim that have been “tortured” in Palestine, Afghanistan or other part of Islamic world. Imam Samudra (2004, 111-112) give reason that he just revenge what USA alliance did to Iraq people by gave them embargo that caused 1.5 million baby died. More over he questioned the International action that was sponsored by USA in Palestine or in Afghanistan.

One thing that cannot be forgotten is that this radicalisms and violence between Christians and Muslims in Indonesia were a heritage from old globalisation (Colonialism). Historically, Indonesia was colonized by Dutch for more than 300 years. For Muslim understanding this colonialism was full human exploitation which marginalised the Muslim position.( Sumitro cited in Mu’ti, 2005). Following the fact that Dutch were Christians and when Indonesian Muslims fought for their Independence their fought against the Dutch Christian colonial. From this historical background if the Islamic societies or Christians societies have intruded it will easy to erupt social conflict. An example was Maluku case, when the Christian community was disturbed by the Muslim migration from Sulawesi and their social economic position was encroached they attached the migrant position (Jacques Bertrand in Abuza, 2005).

The fourth factor is the interpretation method in understanding the holy text. According to Mu’ti (2005) contextual and rational interpretation is potentially misleading. For example, Imam Samudra interprets Jihad that is mentioned in the Quran as Sabilillah just as a holy war. Moreover, he uses his rationality when the enemy of Islam (he has indicate as The USA and the alliance) tortured civilian Muslim in Iraq, Afghanistan, Palestine as his reason to revenge in “western civilian” (Samudra, 2005: 116-119). These were described by Morley (1980) that the individual understanding in certain literature text depends on their cultural formations and practices in his society. Therefore Samudra who in his blood heritage from his great grand farther that was known as a Muslim cleric leader against Dutch colonialism and he was “alumni” from Afghanistan war, so he will use his understanding in interpret Sabilillah and jihad as open war against the enemy of Islam.

The last factor that has a contribution in communal conflicts is Media/Information. The Media’s position is very strategic because they could influence society behaviour through subtle non-coercive forms. Gerston (2004, 56) comment that the media have a reputation for controlling issues on the public agenda. The media not only discourage the information but also they can act as social catalysts by releasing information into the public arena. If the media act as good information conductor, they could give public some choices but if media did not give balance information, it tend to cause people to looking for alternative source of information. In the cutting edge era, with Internet connection, it not only stimulate economic growth by providing easy communications among businesses (Grimes 2007, 1) but also could make people copy to do bad deed, such as robbery or terror from others easily.

Personally I identify that violence and terror base on religion is a fake symptoms. The real problem is because of gap between the haves and the have nots. An example is the Sampit case in Central Kalimantan, in which there was a clash between the migrants and the indigenous society. Where the migrants looked wealthier compare to the indigenous. And this gap is potentially triggering jealousy. This clash was triggering schoolboy fights. This fight was personal fought between the migrant boy and the indigenous boy but unfortunately this spread widely and became an ethnic’s clash (Kusworo, 2001). Moreover, the tension between Muslims and Christians generally triggered by the shows of wealth. By this I means that Indonesian citizens 23,43 % or 47,97 million people are poor (Indonesia Statistic biro, 2005) and mostly they are Muslim and the rich one, mostly the Christian show their wealth by building their worships without any agreement with society. Mu’ti (2005) cited from Research Bureau of the religious affairs department, Christian churches increase more than 131.38 % from 18,977 in 1997 to 43,909 in 2004. This development without any clear regulation would trigger social clash in society.

Future estimation of Islamic Movement in Indonesia

I cannot deny that recently there are many Islamic movements in Indonesia such as Hizbut Tahrir Indonesia, PKS, Majlis Mujahidin, FPI. Their movement have similarity with Ikhwanul Muslimin and Wahabism. As Jones mentions, some of this movement tries to deal with Indonesian contemporary condition by join in election and try to control the government through legislation. For example they have tried to implement Islamic Law as positive law in Indonesia.

In this regard, I see that all Muslims will agree with the idea. Muslims would like to implement their religious rule as positive law. However, what kind of Islamic Law that will pleasure every ones? Does the Syari'ah as recorded in the Koran and Hadith? If the answer is positive, how do we read the verses and Prophet Hadith? What methods will we use in this reading? Moreover, which madzhab (Scholars) will we use? These questions are not dialectical ones, but one really deep understanding.

In my opinion, do we see Islamic Law based on its punishments or its purposes? If the answer is the first, we need to kill all killers; we need to cut all thieves' hand, etc. etc. But, if the answer is the second, KUHP (the recent crime law) is parallel with Islamic law. Recently in order to prevent terrorism government has had anti-terror law no.16 2004.

However, is implementing certain laws as positive law enough for reducing violence or radicalism? Theoretically there are three solutions that are offered by Huntington, Sadowski and Greenfeld. (Cited in David Brown Lecture 31/01/2008)

Huntington gives solution to segregate the society geographically, by giving own Autonomy in each different location with one core civilization that dominant. However this formula is weak. When immigrants alter the balance then compositions would trigger social clash. Maluku and Sampit case in Indonesia is a good example. The Christian community dominated Maluku. They dominate in social and economy position. However, when many Muslim migrants move to this area and Christian existences were disturbed. Social clash happen.

Sadowski propose to give equal policy through each ethnic and promote economic fairness between cultural communities. This idea is a good theory but it is difficult to implement. If one core civilization dominant in certain administratio, they potentially give more privileges to their college then the other ethnics. A good example is happen in Malaysia. When Malay civilizations dominate in administration they campaign the fairness between ethnic but the fact there is many discrimination and potentially triggering conflict. In mid November there was a huge Indian ethnic demonstration that wants equality in Malaysia and this was the biggest protest in Malaysia in the last decade years.

The last solution is proposed by Greenfeld that mentioned as anomic dissonance between social reality and normative expectation. If there is any clash between communities the administration just keep this clash not go further and society will have their own solution by faced that they are not live alone, they live with another civilization. Therefore they should adapt with other culture. In other world community will find their social curing.

I personally partly disagree with those alternatives, because those solutions cannot be easily to implement. To segregate community is just sort solution when the social clashes occur. Promoting economic fairness and social cured will not succeed, if all element’s have inappropriate understanding about the multiculturalism. In order to give high understanding about multiculturalism, it is essential to upgrade the recent education curriculum. This upgrading is not only to give multiculturalism but also will prevent individual or collective terror. As mentions Abuza (2005) that Jamaah Islamiah recruits their sympathiser and member from madrasah (Islamic Schools) and they have indoctrination in that system. Moreover Indonesian Security Intelligent believes that this radicals and terror organization has networks with 60-100 pesantren (Muslim Traditional Boarding Schools) through Indonesia.

It is important to add material of multicultural and ethnic conflicts to the Indonesia’s education curriculum. This material have mission to educate people about the good things about multiculturalism and how to avoid clashes in society. Primary, secondary, and the higher education should teach multiculturalism and the dangers of social conflict.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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PKL Yang Di Benci Tapi Dirindukan dan Dibutuhkan

2007-11-24T05:51:00.000-08:00

Catatan kecil pola penataan PKL di Surabaya

Oleh: Achmad Room Fitrianto,SE

BERBAGAI sanjungan dan pujian sering dialamatkan kepada para pedagang kaki lima (PKL) sebagai penyelamat ekonomi rakyat. Mulai dari penyangga perekonomian rakyat, urat nadi ekonomi masyarakat kecil, sampai sejumlah sebutan positif lain atas peran serta mereka. Hal ini dikarenakan kegiatan perdagangan kakilima tersebut ternyata memberikan kontribusi yang besar dalam aktivitas ekonomi dan kesejahteraan masyarakat terutama golongan ekonomi lemah. Selain itu, kegiatan sektor informal ini merupakan ciri ekonomi kerakyatan yang bersifat mandiri dan menyangkut hajat hidup orang banyak.

Pertumbuhan PKL yang terkesan tidak diikuti dengan penataan dan penegakan hukum ini, malah melahirkan masalah baru bagi bagi setiap kota di republik ini, yaitu ketidaknyamanan dan kesemrawutan sebab fungsi-fungsi sosial fasilitas umum yang ada telah berganti menjadi tempat usaha. Hak pengelolaannya pun berganti ke tangan-tangan penguasa partikelir. Praktik jual beli lahan atau yang umumnya disebut lapak merupakan warna nyata dalam "bisnis gelap" dunia PKL. Nilai jual belinya pun bukan uang receh, melainkan jutaan rupiah.

Karakteristik Pedagang Kaki lima di surabaya diantaranya:

PKL adalah salah satu kiat Hidup, dan berusaha,

Yang maksudnya ini bukan hanya milik orang yang hanya menggantungkan hidupnya dari usaha sebagai PKL, namun cenderung sebagai suatu sistem pemasaran yang mendekatkan barang kepada pembeli, misalnya: pak anwar memiliki toko kelontong di jalan A.Yani, untuk mendongkrak penjualan dia mempunyai 7 orang yang ditugasi untuk menjajakan barang dagangannya, terserah bentuknya apa, ada yang keliling ke perumahan perumahan ada 2 orang, yang menentap di sekitar tugu pahlawan 1 orang, berjualan di deket perumahan Yakaya 1 orang, 1 orang berjualan di aloon aloon Sidoarjo, 2 orang jualan di kawasan SIER, dari sini yang disebut PKL itu pak anwar atau Pegawainya yang 7 orang tersebut?

Modal relatif kecil

Modal PKL selalu diasumsikan kecil, menurut catatan seminar berseri dan berpola penatan PKL di surabaya seri I yang dimuat Jawa pos tgl 9 November 2003 Alisyahbana mengungkapkan di daerah RSU Dr. Soetomo disana ada sekitar 196 PKL dengan omzet perharinya Rp 13.8 juta berarti 1 PKL beromzet Rp 70.400,00 perhari, dengan asumsi keuntunggannya adalah 20% dari modal maka modal PKL di RSU Dr.Soetomo adalah Rp. 352.000/PKL dan ini di kategorikan sebagai usaha kecil .

· SDM bergantung pada Personal Perorangan & Manajemen gaya Rumah tangga (Bapak anak,Isteri ikut sbg PKL)

Pengaturan sisitem usaha PKL menggunakan pola manajemen keluarga, dimana usaha akan tergantung kepada kepala keluarga yang menggantungkan hidupnya dari berusah sebagai PKL. Dan tidak ada 1 orang PKL pun yang bercita cita anaknya akan meneruskan usahanya, malahan bercita cita agar anaknya lebih baik dari dirinya.

· Tingkat pendidikan rendah

Tingkat pendidikan pelaku Usaha kaki lima masih rendah, ini terlihat dari hasil pengamatan alisyahbana pada bukunya urban hidden economy yang memperlihatkan tingkat pendidikan PKL yang 49,5 merupakan hanya lulus sekolah dasar, Tamat SMP hanya 23 %, sedangkan sisianya lulusan SMA dan Perguruan Tinggi.

Tabel Tingkat Pendidikan PKL

Tingkat pendidikan	SD	SMP	SMA	PT	Lainnya
	49,5 %	23%	14,5%	3,5 %	9,5 %

Sumber: Urban Hidden Economy, Alisyahbana: 2003

· Tidak Punya tempat permanen (menggunakan fasilitas Umum)

Kebanyakan PKL menjalankan usaha secara informal dengan menggunakan lahan terbuka dan atau tertutup, yang sebagian termasuk fasilitas umum yang ditentukan oleh Pemerintah Daerah sebagai tempat kegiatan usahanya baik mengunakan peralatan bergerak maupun tidak sesuai waktu yang ditentukan.

Peran Ekonomi

Selain kekuatan omzetnya yang sangat besar itu, pemerintah kota apabila mengelolanya maka akan menjadi sumber pendapatan asli daerah yang potansial, saat ini pungutan yang dialami PKL berkisar antara Rp500-Rp2500 per hari, dengan dalih keamanan , organisasi dan sebagainya, belum lagi apabila PKL harus menebus rombong yang kena “garukan” apalagi dengan sejumlah barang dagangan yang ikut di garuk. Kita ambil nilai tengah saja dari pungutan PKL yaitu Rp 1500/ hari. Untuk satu titik seperti di sekitar RSU dr.Soetomo dengan 196 PKL selama 30 hari, jumlah pungutannya akan sebesar Rp.8.820.00, jika menggunakan asumsi awal di surabaya ada 60 titik PKL, maka besarnya pungutan yang diperoleh sekitar Rp 529.200.000,- untuk satu tahun akan senilai dengan Rp 6.350.400.000. Dengan dana Rp 6,3 milyaran setahun pemerintah kota surabaya bisa membiayai untuk pembinaan PKL, dengan sistem bapak angkat atau dengan dana guliran. Potensi inilah yang belum di kelola pemerintah kota.

Dengan kehadiran PKL di beberapa titik dengan standar kebutuhan minimum hidup bujang di surabaya sebesar Rp 700.000 an ini, akan sangat menolong warga surabaya untuk memperoleh barang dengan harga lebih murah jika beli dari pertokoaan. Kita ambilkan contoh karyawan Tunjungan dengan gaji sebesar Rata-rata Rp 1 jutaan, untuk kebutuhan kebutuhan hidup bujang Rp 700 ribuan sisa Rp 300 ribuan, untuk makan ketika ngantor/bekerja dimana meraka mencari makan? Apakah di pusat jajanan di lantai 6? Jika mereka masuk dengan asumsi 30 hari dengan kebutuhan makan dalam 1 hari kerja 2 kali makan, sekali makan di food court rata rata menghabiskan Rp.20.000, maka sebulan akan menghabiskan Rp 1.200.000, apa mungkin mereka mempunyai gaya hidup seperti itu. Untuk mengantisipasi PKL menyediakan makanan dengan harga maksimal Rp 5.000 sekali makan. Berapa subsidi PKL kepada tiap karyawan Tunjungan tiap bulannya, jika kita hitung maka Rp. 900.000 an subsidi PKL kepada tiap karyawan tunjungan tiap bulan.

Peran Sosial

Munculnya Jiwa Wiraswasta yang gigih di masyarakat

Dari catatan bagian perekonomian jumlah PKL di Kota Surabaya 25.000 orang, sedangkan yang tergabung di PPKLS pimpinan Choirul anan tercatat 8000 orang dan di seluruh jawa timur yang tercatat menjadi anggota APKLI Jatim pimpinan Ahmad Rifa'I 78.000 PKL, maka bisa terlihat berapa banyak yang menggantungkan hidup dengan berusaha sebagai PKL, jika kita berasumsi 1 PKL dengan 1 isteri dan 3 orang anak, maka akan ada kisaran 40.000 orang versi PPKLS atau 125.000 orang Versi Pemkot dan atau 390.000 orang versinya APKLI yang bergantung hidupnya sebagai PKL. Dengan kondisi perekonomian yang kurang stabil seperti saat ini PKL akan menjadi salah satu solusi/kiat untuk bertahan hidup.

Sebagai Jaring pengaman Sosial

Mengurangi masalah sosial seperti sosial, kriminalitas dan lain lain yang diakibatkan oleh kesenjangan ekonomi dan tingkat penggaguran yang tinggi akibat krisis ekonomi yang berkepanjangan.

Dalam angka konservatip, PKL telah menyerap 10% tenaga kerja dari seluruh penduduk Surabaya, angka ini akan lebih besar jika dibandingkan hanya dengan penduduk usia produktif. Sudah tentu kenyataan ini memberikan performance rating yang signifikan di dalam menghadapi tingkat pengangguran yang angkanya dikhawatirkan akan meningkat.

Penetapan Lokasi yang membutuhkan PKL

Penentuan Lokasi wilayah yang membutuhkan PKL didasarkan kepada rumusan tertentu dan syarat tertentu sebagaimana yang akan di jabarkan berikut ini, sehingga kedepan dapat dilakukan perencanaan yang lebih tepat dalam reancangan tata wilayah dan tata kota yang komprehensip.

Dimana rumusan tertentu itu dipengaruhi:

Tingkat Ekonomi Penduduk

Tingkat ekonomi penduduk sekitar patut menjadi ajuan, karena ini merupakan demand tersendiri terhadap barang barang yang mungkin di sediakan oleh PKL. Untuk daerah dengan tingkat ekonomi penduduk yang mapan seperti Dharma Husada Indah jenis PKL apa saja yang memungkinkan untuk di kembangkan, seperti Wlijo di pagi hari untuk belanja kebutuhan sehari hari misalnya, atau malahan itu tidak akan laku untuk di wilayah elit.

Tersedianya Sarana Angkutan umum

Lokasi pemusatan PKL yang di rancang seyogyanya bisa diakses oleh setiap warga dan memudahkan untuk belanja warga.

Ketersediaannya lahan kosong yang legal di gunakan

Syarat ini mungkin yang paling mutlak, karena variabe lainnya akan tidak berguna apabila ketersediaan lahan ini tidak dipenuhi.

Jumlah penduduk yang memadai (Pasar yang memadai)

Jumlah penduduk yang membutuhkan jasa PKL cukup besar permintaannya terhadap barang barang tertentu, yang mungkin akan disediakan oleh PKL, ini juga terkait dengan vaeiabel tingkat ekonomi penduduk.

Menentukan Potensi PKL

Misalnya:

Kondisi ideal 1 PKL melayani: misalnya 1000 Penduduk, hal ini didasarkan kepada kemampuan daya jual ( kemampuan supply maksimal) dari PKL untuk memenuhi penduduk sekitar dengan perkiraan laba yang memadai (dapat memenuhi standar kebutuhan minimum Kota Surabaya)

Misalkan Kemampuan pedagang Bakso melayani pembelinya dalam 1 bulan

Standar kebutuhan minimum Kota Surabaya misalnya : Rp. 900.000,- (untuk hidup bujang)

Maka laba 1 hari yang harus di raup pedagang bakso adalah (asumsi 1 bulan = 30 hari) 900.000/30 yaitu Rp. 30.000

Jika 1 mangkok bakso pedagang labanya Rp. 500,- maka dia bisa melayani 60 orang pembeli sehari, maka dia maksimum dalam 1 bulan hanya mampu melayani 900 pembeli.

Dengan karakteristik PKL seperti yang digambarkan diatas, seyogya pemerintah dalam membuat kebijakan yang terkait menerapkan Prinsip:

Promoting Opportunity

Kebijakan untuk menciptakan suasana dan lingkungan ekonomi pemerintahan dan pelayanan publik yang merata dan adil

Community Empowerment

Kebijakan yang menagara pada masyarakat miskin melalui peningkatan SDM, pemantapan organisasi, kelmbagaan social, Politik sehingga mampu berpartisipasi dalam pengambilan kebijakan dan perencaan publik

Capacity Building

Kebijakan yang mampu memberikan kemempuan dasar masyarakat miskin untuk hidup lebih baik

Sosial Protections

Kebijakan untuk memberikan perlindungan dan rasa aman terutama pada masyarakat miskin

Selain itu di dalam menentuka kebijakan publik khususnya tetang pengelolaan PKL, seharusnya pemerintah kota melakukan tiga hal yang menjadi mekanisma dasar program pengelolaan:

1. people participation yang bukan policy participation; dan

2. mengembangkan rasa saling percaya (mutual trust).

3. partnership, yang melibatkan berbagai pihak dalam penanganan PK-5.

Dengan proses perumusan kebijakan yang menganut prinsip prinsip diatas, perlu di jabarkan kepada kegiatan teknis diantaranya adalah pembinaan, dimana pembinaan yang ideal yang seharusnya dilakukan dapat berbentuk:

a. Pembinaan Sumber daya manusia

Pembinaan sumber daya manusia disini tidak hanya menyekolahkan PKL, tapi juga berupa pemberian beberapa ketrampilan, khususnya untuk ibu ibu PKL dan satuhal yang utama memberi mereka pengertian agar tertib hukum, sehingga kedepan dapat membentuk image bahwa PKL itu taat dan tertib hukum.

b. Pembinaan proses Produksi

Pembinaan proses produksi ini di tekankan kepada PKL yang bergerak pada bidang makanan dan minuman, dengan memberikan pelatihan heginitas penyediaan makanan.

c. Pembinaan Modal kerja

Pembinaan modal ini dapat berupa bantuan dana guliran yang di kelola olej koperasi PKL atau asoasiasi, sehingga modal kerja ini nantinya akan memerikan bantuan dana siap pakai tanpa prosedur yang berbelit dan rumit, yang tidak akan mengganggu jalanya Usaha. Jika syaratnya berbelit, siapa yang akan mengurusi, padahal mereka harus berdagang setiap hari.

d. Pembinaan Akses pasar

Pembinaan akses pasar ini lebih ditekankan kepada marketing, dimana mereka di bina bagaimana agar pelanggan tertarik untuk membeli di PKL dengan mengubah image masyarakat terhadap PKL selama ini, selain itu PKL juga di bina untuk melihat potensi pasar, berapa kemampuan mereka untuk melayani masyarakat dan berapa keuntungan yang di peroleh di sana.

Sehingga akan memunculkan kegiatan yang lebih teknis diantaranya:

Adanya pembinaan usaha, sehingga terdapat studi kelayakan PKL
Wisata Belanja PKL
Perlunya Pengaturan waktu- jam Berdagang, sesuai dengan karakteristiknya
Adanya Perda yang menjamin 10-20%lokasi Publik Untuk PKL
Memberikan bantuan pembinaan kredit mikro pada PKL

Adanya Peran Proaktif untuk pembinaan/pemberdayaan bukannya represif
Pembinaan dilakukan secara structural dari tingkat RT/RW dan Kelurahan
Adanya pembinaan yang structural dan terpadu berdasar tingkatan regionalisasi yang di munculkan (Lihat Lampiran 2 dan lampiran 3 versi PKL)

Demikian catatan kecil yang kami invetarisir dari beberapa kegiatan yang membahas penataan PKL di kota surabaya semoga bermanfaat, jika ada kelebihan itu semata karena Ilmunya Allah, dan jika ada kesalahan itu adalah kesalahan kami sebagai oknum hamba Tuhan.

Achmad Room Fitrianto, SE

Pengamat Sosial Ekonomi,

Dosen Jurusan Muamalah Fakultas Syariah IAIN Sunan Ampel Surabaya,

Anggota TP3KL Jawa Pos

The Small business Perspective on Islamic banks Products

2007-11-24T05:28:00.000-08:00

(A case study in Sidoarjo Regency, Gresik Regency, and Surabaya Municipality

East Java- Indonesia)

Achmad Room FitriantoÒ

The Abstract

This research paper was inspired by the difficulties of small business in accessing credit from banks; therefore, I conducted a research, which had been conducted since May 2006 until July 2006. This paper will explore the businesses perspective about the Islamic bank products.

This research was conducted with field observation and in-depth interviews that was represented micro businesses, medium businesses and the local bankers in Sidoarjo Regency, Gresik Regency, and Surabaya Municipality in east java.

In this research, I identified at least six weaknesses of Islamic banks. Firstly, There are many Arabic words used to explain Islamic banks products. This is a paradox because Indonesian Muslims are not familiar with Arabic language except with Qur’an words. Moreover, this is not supported with a good marketing. This problem could be solved by providing both Arabic words and Indonesian worlds in every single Islamic product. Secondly, consumers cannot access Islamic banks for consumption need such as for school fee. Thirdly, There are many Islamic banks staff who do not full understand about the philosophies of Islamic banks. Therefore, this affects service gifted to customer. The next weakness is there are not clear concepts about loss sharing in Islamic banks. They just campaigning the profit sharing but never about loss sharing. A fifth problem is, the respondents cited that the value of profit sharing is mostly higher then a conventional banks interest rate, that is why Islamic banks are not competitive compare to conventional banks expect for the customer who understand Islamic law. The last weakness is that the Islamic banks operational procedures are too rigid; this means the bank will take risks to approve customer credit. This make worse by the fact that the Islamic bank credit process is complicated.

The research recommendation is Islamic banks should have proactive programs in order to minimalist the difficulties of the small business in accessing credit bank. Furthermore, Islamic Banks should actives market their products in small industrial area. Following this action, Islamic banks should arrange joined agreement among Social Institutions such as Muhammadiyah, Nahdlatul Ulama, or other NGOs in order to give assistance to small business, which have difficulty in accessing credit banks.

Ò Economic Lecturer in Muamalah study program at Syariah Faculty of State Isntitute for Islamic studies Sunan Ampel Surabaya-Indonesia

PUTUSAN SIMALAKAMA MAHKAMAH AGUNG TERHADAP KEPAILITAN PT DIRGANTARA INDONESIA

2007-11-06T17:54:00.000-08:00

(Menjawab Tulisan M Hadi Shubhan “Eks Pekerja PT DI Kian Menderita, Jawa Pos 20 Oktober 2007)

Oleh: Achmad Room Fitrianto*

Membicarakan industri strategis Indonesia memang tidak bisa dilepaskan dari unsur kepentingan tertentu. Namun demikian sekiranya kita mencoba menganalisi tentang keputusan Mahkamah Agung (MA) yang membatalkan putusan Pengadilan Niaga pada Pengadilan Negeri Jakarta Pusat yang menyatakan PT Dirgantara Indonesia (PT DI) pailit (Jawa Pos, 25-10-07) harus kita cermati tidak dengan emosional namun harus secara rasional tanpa mengesampingkan kepentingan bangsa kedepan.

Tulisan ini dimaksudkan untuk menyeimbangkan informasi yang di bangun oleh saudara M. Hadi Shubhan yang dibuat oleh Jawa pos 20 oktober 2007 yang berjudul Eks Pekerja PT DI Kian Menderita. Namun demikian tulisan ini berusaha di susun senetral mungkin untuk memberikan informasi yang tepat kepada khalayak khususnya mengenai industri strategis.

Pertama tama saya ingin berkomentar tentang pernyataan saudara M. Hadi Shubhan bahwa keputusan MA yang mengembalikan status hukum PT DI kembali seperti sebelum terjadi putusan kepailitan merupakan salah satu bukti penindasan hak hak normative pekerja. Lebih lanjut pada paragraph berikutnya yang menyatakan bahwa MA sudah terbiasa mengeluarkan keputusan yang kurang berkualitas dan penyataan ini dibuktikan dengan penelitian desertasi saudara M. Hadi Shubhan sendiri. Pernyataan tersebut diatas menurut saya cukup absurb dan gegabah. Terlebih lebih dengan menjustifikasi bila MA sudah terbiasa dengan keputusan yang kurang berkualitas. Kerena pernyatan ini mendiskriditkan lembaga negara dan termasuk didalamnya system pendidikan ilmu Hukum di Indonesia. Memang tidak dapat dipungkiri ada beberapa keputusan MA yang kurang berpihak, namun demikian untuk kasus kepailitan PT DI keputusan MA cukup tepat. Pertama sebagai mana disebutkan pada pasal 33 ayat 2 UUD 45 bahwa Cabang-cabang produksi yang penting bagi Negara dan yang menguasai hajat hidup orang banyak dikuasai oleh Negara. Saya yakin Industri strategis dirgantara seperti PT DI merupakan salah satu cabang produksi yang penting bagi negara yang perlu dikembangkan untuk meningkatkan daya saing bangsa. Kedua, Pengunaan pembuktian dari hasil kerja pribadi yang tidak ( kurang) didukung oleh sumber lain, akan menimbulkan wacana bahwa tulisan tersebut adalah berpihak dan tidak netral.

Kedua saya juga ingin mengaris bawahi pernyataan bila “banyak (eks) pekerja PT DI bekerja di sector informal untuk menyambung hidup padahal mereka adalah pekerja dengan berkeahlian tinggi”. Kembali saya pertanyakan apakah dengan mempailitkan PT DI akan mengembalikan mereka untuk bekerja kembali di sektor formal sesuai dengan keahlian yang dimiliki? Saya kira tidak. Justru denga memberikan kesempatan kepada PT DI untuk memperbaiki kinerjanya dan menata kembali usaha yang telah dimilikinya, sehingga bisa memberikan kesempatan tidak hanya mereka yang di “rumahkan” akan tetapi bisa juga menarik para tenaga ahli yang telah diserap oleh perusahaan luar negeri untuk kembali membangun industri dirgantara Indonesia. Sebagaimana di muat Republika 25 Oktober 2007 saat ini ada 20 orang eks PT DI (IPTN) di eropa, 10 di AS, 15 orang di Kanada, 15 orang di Korea dan yang cukup mengejutkan 35 orang justru berada di negara tetangga Malaysia.

Terakhir, pernyataan bahwa mengapa pemerintah mempertahankan industri yang jelas jelas merugikan negara (dalam hal ini yang dimaksud adalah Industri dirgantra), adalah sangat emosional dan tidak mengakar. Pertama pengembalian status ini adalah satu upaya untuk memberikan kesempatan kepada PT DI untuk memulai industri strategis yang guna menunjang daya saing bangsa di tingkat global. Hal ini merujuk kepada teori pertumbuhan Coub Douglas yang menunjukan bahwa pertumbuhan ekonomi suatu negara akan beraselerasi dengan cepat apabila di dukung oleh teknologi. Dalam hal ini teknologi dirgantara merupinakan salah satu upaya para pendiri bangsa ini guna mengejar ketertinggalan. Merujuk kebijakan pemerintahan Presiden Soekarno yang pada saat itu hanya memberikan ijin mahasiswa Indonesia untuk belajar di luar negeri dikhususkan untuk belajar teknologi dirgantara dan teknologi kelautan ( Habibie, Q Channel :2004). Kedua, Merujuk kepada potensi yang dimiliki oleh PT Dirgantara yang di utarakan oleh Ninok Leksono yang dimuat Kompas 13 september 2007 yang menyebutkan bahwa PT DI masih memiliki potensi, pada Asian Aerospace 2006 di Singapura, Pihak CASA membuka kemungkinan pembicaraan untuk memproduksi C-212-400 di Bandung, dan PT DI membantu dalam pemasarannya di Asia, sedangkan CASA untuk bagian dunia lainnya. Selain itu sejarah membuktikan bila pada 1986 IPTN (PT DI) memperoleh kontrak 10 tahun dari General Dynamics untuk memproduksi 3.462 komponen air-frame dari F-16 (Fighting Falcon) senilai 57 juta dolar AS. Satu lagi pengalaman yang dimiliki PT DI dengan miliki dengan Boeing untuk membuat 8.000 komponen air-frame Boeing 737 pada bulan Maret 1987, yang dilanjutkan dengan kontrak serupa pada Oktober 1988 senilai 30 juta dolar AS untuk Boeing 767 (Republika, 25 Oktober 2007) lebih lanjut pengalaman ini tidak dimiliki oleh perusahan lain.

Memang tidak bisa dipungkiri bila pada awal pengembangan industri dirgantara mengunakan pembiayaan yang tidak semestinya, namun demikian janganlah kesalahan manajemen dimasa lalu dijadikan alat untuk “membunuh” potensi teknologi strategis yang bisa mendongkrak daya saing bangsa. Satu lagi yang perlu ditekankan untuk rugi untuk menjalankan industri dirgantara tidak hanya ditentukan oleh criteria accounting yang sempit sebagaimana disebutkan Francois Railon dalam Republika 25 Oktober 2007 bahwa dari 28 program dirgantara yang diluncurkan sejak pasca perang dunia kedua hanya Boeing 707 dan Boeing 727 yang meraup keuntungan. Ada banyak aspek yang perlu dipertimbangan untuk membangun dan mengukur ekonomi industri berbasis pesawat terbang. Julukan Everett of the East untuk industri dirgantara Indonesia jangan sampai bergeser kenegara lain. Mengunakan terminology Boeing, dimana perusahan penerbangan ini mempusatkan produksinya di kota Everett, dekat Seattle, negara bagian Washington.

Banyak pertimbangan yang harus dipergunakan dalam meningkatkan daya saing bangsa seperti aspek industri strategis, atau industri berbasis technology ataupun aspek trickle down effect teknologi dalam hal ini industri pesawat terbang. Tidak hanya berdasarkan hitungan standar keuangan yang hanya mengukur keuntungan apabila mendapat uang lebih dari yang diinvestasikan.

* Pemerhati Masalah social

Pengajar pada Jurusan Muamalah Fakultas Syariah IAIN Sunan Ampel Surabaya

Sedang menyelesaikan program Master of Arts in Public Policy pada Murdoch University, Perth Australia

ANALYSIS OF THE INDONESIAN GOVERNMENT MITIGATION POLICIES IN THE PORONG MUD DISASTER

2007-10-25T17:55:00.000-07:00

Executive Summary

Some experts consider Lumpur Lapindo (Lapindo mud), a natural phenomenon but most people consider it a disaster. This mud has been erupting since May 29^th2006 and has continued to spew out around 7,000 to 150,000 cubic metres hot toxic mud every day. This mudflow has displaced around 4,500 families in 11 villages and caused material losses of approximately Rp 27 trillion (about US$ 3.0 billion).

There have been at least four methods implemented to stop the mud, but unfortunately all those methods have failed. Recently, the government have been considering a new method, the counter weight method. However, in order to implement this method is still needs geological opinion about the land condition around the mudflow. The land stability is important, because this method tries to stop the mud by damming it until it reach a certain height and weight that are believed can stop it erupting.

The present mitigation board based on Presidential decree have duty to reduce the losses of the victim. Actually this board has enough authority to mitigate this disaster but it seems that they work very slowly. Their program is just seen as reactionary program not based on comprehensive plan.

The aim of this report is to evaluate the policies that the government has made to reduce the suffering of the victims and give some recommendations for action. Unfortunately, this mitigation board has not been supported with sufficient financing from government. The financial support is depends at the good will of Lapindo company to pay all the operations of the Mitigation board.

The final section recommends four possible actions that could be done in the sort term, medium term and in the long term. These possible actions require a good coordination between the Lapindo Inc, the mitigation board and the government. The fourth and most extreme solution for the government take over all Lapindo’s rights to explore oil and gas and develop all the infrastructure needed to normalize the regional activities, and use the profits to revitalize and develop Porong and the affected areas. Finally the government should create new and tougher regulations in mining and drilling especially those close to residential areas to prevent similar accidents in the future.

PERAN PESANTREN DALAM PENGEMBANGAN PEREKONOMIAN RAKYAT

2007-10-25T03:01:00.000-07:00

(Disampaikan Pada acara diskusi panel Penguatan Ekonomi Pesantren dan Tantangan Perubahan oleh Center For Islam And Democracy Studies, Bangkalan; 26 september 2005)

PENDAHULUAN

Sekarang ini sering muncul anggapan bahwa agama dan ekonomi dua hal yang berbeda, jika kita berbicara tentang ekonomi maka tidak bisa kita gabungkan dengan membicarakan dengan agama, karena yang satu menuntut keihlasan yang biasanya diartikan sebagai bentuk ketidak berharapan terhadap “keuntungan” sedangkan yang satu selalu di hubungkan dengan masalah keuangan, keuntungan dan pamrih (baca: ketidak ihlasan). Sehingga jika kita berbicara pesantren seolah olah tidak ada hubungannya dengan masalah ekonomi, lebih lebih jika kita membahasa masalah keagamaan yang lebih mendalam. Padahal dua masalah ini adalah dua mata uang yang tidak bisa dipisahkan, ibaratnya hadist rosulullah yang menyatakan “Hampir-hampir karena kemiskinan itu menjadikan seseorang kufur”

Masalah kemiskinan (baca: ekonomi) bukan hanyalah masalah keduniawian saja akan tetapi juga masalah yang terkait dengan kebahagian lahir dan batin, seperti yang tersirat dalam surah al Dhuha, yang mempunyai arti ”Bukankah Allah telah mendapatimu miskin, kemudian Dia menganugerahkan kepadamu kecukupan?” (Qs, 93: 8) bahkan di surat jumat di siratkan untuk segera bertebaran dimuka bumi untuk mencari penghidupan sebagai mana isi dari surah al Jum’ah, yang mempunyai arti ”Apabila telah selesai shalat (jum’at) maka bertebaranlah di bumi dan carilah fadhl (kelebihan) dari Allah” (Qs, 62: 10)

Bahkan orientalis barat pun masih mengakui tentang peran agama dalam perekonomian, menurut Wallace, agama akan mempunyai fungsi berupa “obat” yang dapat mengurangi kegelisahan, memantapkan kepercayaan akan eksistensi diri serta memberikan oreintasi hidup lebih panjang. Dengan demikian, ada beberapa “kawasan” kehidupan manusia yang membutuhkan peran agama. Kawasan tersebut adalah: Pertama, kawasan yang memandang bahwa kebutuhan manusia akan dapat dipenuhi dengan kekuatan manusia sendiri. Manusia tidak perlu lari kepada kekuatan adi kodrati. Kedua, meliputi wilayah yang manusia merasa aman secara moral. Tingkah laku dan tata pergaulan manusia diatur lewat norma-norma rasional yang dibenarkan agama, seperti norma sopan santun, norma hukum serta aturan-aturan dalam masyarakat. Ketiga, merupakan wilayah yang manusia secara total mengalami ketidakmampuannya. Usaha manusia di daerah ini mengalami suatu titik putus yang tidak dapat dilalui. Hal ini mendorong manusia mencari kekuatan lain di luar dirinya, yaitu kekuatan adikodrati. Maka terciptalah beberapa upara ritual untuk berkomuniasi dengan kekuatan itu. Dengan itu, manusia meyakinkan dirinya, bahwa dia sanggup mengatasi problem yang paling mendasar berupa ketidakpastian, ketidakmampuan dan kelangkaan sehingga manusia merasa menemukan kepastian, keamanan dan jaminan (Hendropuspito, 1983: 39).

Keterkaitan antara agama dan struktur sosial, terutama yang bersentuhan dengan kepentingan sosial ekonomi, bagi weber, adalah keniscayaan. Religion is really economics, politics is really religion and economics is really politics [1]. Dari penjelasan ini, ternyata keterkaitan agama dengan ekonomi dan sosial adalah merupakan implikasi dari keterkaitan agama dengan pola pikir, prilaku dan tindakan manusia.

Beikut ini kami paparkan peranan penting perekonomian pesantren dari sisi prespektif geoekonomi politik:

KONDISI EKONOMI REGIONAL JAWA TIMUR

Dengan jumlah penduduk Jawa Timur pada akhir tahun 2004 sekitar 35.709.997[2] jiwa dengan konsentrasi penduduk beragama Islam sekitar 85%, menjadikan pesantren dan komunitas yang terkait dengannya menjadi satu kekuatan yang cukup di perhitungkan, ini di buktikan dengan menangnya Partai Kebangkitan Bangsa yang berbasis NU dalam pemilihan umum tahun 2005 di Jawa Timur.

Perkembangan PDRB atas dasar harga konstan di jawa timur pada tahun 2001 sebesar 3.33% meningkat hingga tahun 2002 menjadi 3.41%. Pada tahun 2004 mencapai angka lebih dari 5%[3] dan Tahun 2005 diprediksi perkembangan mencapai kurang 4% . Hal ini di picu oleh kenaikan Harga BBM. Perkembangan PDRB atas dasar harga konstan tersebut menunjukkan adanya peningkatan pendapatan (kesejahteraan ) masyarakat Jawa Timur secara riil dibanding dengan tahun sebelumnya.

Sedangkan PDRB perkapita atas dasar harga yang berlaku tahun 2004 telah mencapai Rp.7.87 juta, dari tahun ke tahun nilainya naik secara signifikan ,kenaikan per tahun sebesar 13.95%[4].Angka tersebut menunjukkan bahwa pembangunan di jawa timur berjalan dengan baik dan beberapa sektor pembangunan telah menghasilkan output yang dapat diandalkan.

Kondisi perekonomian Jawa Timur yang secara rata rata diatas pertumbuhan nasional ini di akui oleh Dick (1993)[5], Jawa Timur pada tahun 1980-an merupakan propinsi di Indonesia yang paling mendekati bentuk ideal pembangunan berimbang (balanced development). Disisi lain juga Jawa timur berhasil melakukan penyebaran diantara sektor industri yang ada, namun demikian masih terdapat sentra sentra perkembangan industri manufaktur diantaranya Surabaya, yang merupakan tempat konsentrasi industri yang terbesar, yang pada meluber ke Kabupaten Sidoarjo dan Kabupaten Gresik. Konsentrasi pertumbuhan industri manucfaktur ini berkembang ke Pasuruan, Malang dan Kediri, maka dapat dikatakan bahwa pada tahun 1986 industri manufaktur besar dan menengah secara spasial terkonsentrasi di koridor Surabaya-Malang di tambah Kota Kediri[6].

Dari titik titik pertumbuhan yang ada di jawa timur inilah yang akan memicu pertumbuhan disekitarnya, dalam hal ini peranan pesantren akan kami eksplorasi sejauh mana tingkat eksistensinya. Jumlah pesantren di jawa timur yang mendekati jumlah 1000-an dengan jumlah santri 946.945 orang dengan sebaran yang hampir merata di setiap kabupaten menjadikan pesantren sebagai instrumen yang tidak bisa diabaikan dalam pertumbuhan ekonomi. Meskipun pada era Orde Baru telah usaha pengembangan pesantren namun usaha ini merupakan salah satu pemasung kreatifitas pesantren dalam pengembangan kelembagaan. Hal ini di karenanakan program bantuan yang diberikan oleh pemerintah Orde baru cenderung digunakan agar pesantren tidak “berulah” dan menjauhi hal hal yang berbau pemberdayaan dan berbau “politik”.

Berbagai Hambatan Keagamaan dalam Pengembangan Ekonomi Pesantren

Pesantren yang memiliki multi fungsi sosial khususnya fungsi sebagai agen perubahan seharusnya bisa merefleksikan kenyataan sosial dan menjadi konstruktor ideologi perubahan, ternyata justeru menjadi pelestari ideologi patriarki. Banyak Pesantren yang masih melestarikan konsep feminitas tradisional model Patriarki Birokrasi yang sangat Kolot, yang menjadikan perkembangan pesantren menjadi tergantung kepada satu inovasi sesorang yang memiliki peranan sentral ( baca : Kyai). Hambatan ini diperparah dengan keterbatasan sarana dan prasarana yang dimiliki, diantaranya adanya keterbatasan lahan untuk pengembangan pertanian atau adanya paham para santri “dilarang” berhubungan dengan segal sesuatu yang berbau Teknologi Informasi seperti Internet, televisi, radio dan sebagainya, yang menjadikan kurang lancarnya informasi yang terjaring oleh pesantren.

Kondisi ini tercermin dari tulisannya Abdurrahman Wahid dalam Menggerakkan Tradisi: Esai-Esai Pesantren, (2001:171) menyebutkan “pondok pesantren mirip dengan akademi militer atau biara (monestory, convent) dalam arti bahwa mereka yang berada di sana mengalami suatu kondisi totalitas.”

Sehingga Birokratisasi dan senioritas akan sangat kental dengan kehidupan Pesantren , lebih lanjut Abdurramahman wahid menyebutkan (2001: 98) “para santri akan menerima semua yang diajarkan tanpa ada kebutuhan untuk mempertanyakan kebenarannya, karena sikap menerima dengan rela apa yang diberikan kyai atau guru adalah sebagian dari sikap beribadat pula, seperti juga halnya kepercayaan akan kebenaran semua yang diuraikan itu secara mutlak.”

Namun demikian dengan masa keterbukaan seperti saat ini peranan pesantren menjadi sangat penting baik dari sisi ekonomi, sosial, budaya lebih lebih dari sisi politik, terutama bagi mereka yang telah melepaskan diri dari keterbatasan yang dimiliki.

PERANAN PESANTREN DALAM PEREKONOMIAN

u Sebagai Lembaga Produksi

Pesantren sebagai lembaga produksi yang di tunjukkan dengan adanya penguasaan terhadap sejumlah bidang tanah, memiliki tenaga kerja untuk memanfaatkan dan memiliki teknologi untuk mengelolah (memprodusi-red) menunjukan pesantren sebagai salah satu produsen, jika sebuah pesantren bergerak dalam bidang pertanian , maka pesantren ini merupakan produsen dalam bidang pertanian, jika pesantren bergerak dalam bidang indsutri (kerajinan, kecil) maka pesantren sebagai produsen dalam bidang industri.

u Pesantren sebagai lembaga produksi agar bisa melanjutkan eksistensi dalam dunia usaha maka pesantren harus berinovasi dalam pengembangan produknya, jika hanya mengandalkan pasar tradisional yang dimiliki maka perkembangannya akan cenderung stagnan. Langkah awal yang dilakukan adalah dengan mengefisienkan factor produksi yang dimiliki yang kemudian mengembangkan diversifikasi produk dan tenaga kerja. Dengan demikian akan memunculkan efisiensi ekonomis. Sedangkan efisiensi ekonomis mengacu pada nilai output terhadap input, atau nilai sumberdaya (faktor produksi) yang dipakai menghasilkan output tersebut. Pengukuran efisiensi ekonomis mensyaratkan nilai-nilai ditempatkan pada komoditi. Dalam analisis kesejahteraan, nilai yang ditempatkan (sebagai satuan hitung atau pengukur) pada komoditi itu adalah nilai-nilai yang diberikan oleh pasar sempurna. Ekonomi Italia, Dilfredo Pareto, telah menspesifikasikan suatu kondisi atau syarat terciptanya alokasi sumberdaya secara efisien atau optimal, yang kemudian terkenal dengan istilah syarat atau kondisi pareto (pareto condition). Definisi kondisi pareto adalah suatu alokasi barang sedemikian rupa, sehingga bila dibandingkan dengan alokasi lainnya, alokasi tersebut tidak akan merugikan pihak manapun dan salah satu pihak pasti diuntungkan. Atas kondisi pareto juga bisa didefinisikan sebagai suatu situasi dimana sebagian atau semua pihak/individu takkan mungkin lagi diuntungkan oleh pertukaran sukarela. Inilah peranan ekonomi pesantren sebagai produsen, lebih lanjut kami mengestimasi peranan pesantren dalam menyediakan out put barang produksi.

Di Indonesia, usaha mikro dan usaha kecil telah memberikan kontribusi yang signifikan kepada perekonomian nasional.Sebagai gambaran, pada tahun 2000 tenaga kerja yang diserap industri rumah tangga (salah satu bagian dari usaha mikro sektor perindustrian) dan industri kecil mencapai 65,38% dari tenaga kerja yang diserap sektor perindustrian nasional.

Pada tahun yang sama sumbangan usaha kecil terhadap total PDB mencapai 39,93% Dari industri kecil dan rumah tangga ini 60% digerakkan oleh pesantren dan para alumninya

Contoh Pesantren yang bisa mengembangkan ekonomi local

· Pesantren Masturiyah Jawa Barat Pimpinan K.H.E. Fachrudin Masturo

· Pesantren Alquran Babussalam di kawasan Bandung Utara tepatnya di Desa Ciburial, Kecamatan Cimenyan. Pesantren ini didirikan oleh KH Drs Muchtar Adam pada 18 Januari 1981.

· Pesantren Darussalam Gontor, Ponorogo

u Sebagai Lembaga Konsumsi

Pesanten sebagai lembaga lembaga konsumsi di tunjukkan dari jumlah barang produksi yang di serap oleh pesantren baik oleh santri sebagai peserta didik maupun pesantren sebagai lembaga pendidikan, jika ditambahkan bila pesantren memiliki usaha produksi, maka bahan baku usaha produksi ini juga akan menyerap barang produksi yang tidak sedikit.

u Jika di jawa timur terdapat 280.397 santri mukim putra dan 237.669 santri mukim Putri 213.647 Kalong Putra dan 215.232 kalong Putri dengan total 946.945 santri dan masing masing santri setiap harinya mengkonsumsi secara rata rata Rp 5000 maka dalam 1 bulan mereka mengkonsumsi sebesar Rp 150.000, ini artinya total konsumsi para santri setiap bulannya adalah Rp 142.041.750.000 belum lagi untuk biaya operasional pesantren yang bisa 2-25 kali lebih besar dari junlah konsumsi santri, ini berarti besarnya konsumsi pesantren sebagai lembaga pendidikan berkisar antara 284.083.500.000- 3.551.043.750.000, ini berati merupakan serapan yang cukup besar terhadap total produksi yang di keluarkan oleh Industri.

u Sebagai Lembaga Penyeimbang

Pesantren sebagai lembaga penyeimbang dalam tulisan ini kami menyoroti dalam 4 paradigma, yaitu ; Pesantren sebagai kekuatan social, pesantren sebagai lembaga Tinkthank, pesantren sebagai lembaga politik dan Pesantren sebagai Agen perubahan.

u Pesantren sebagai kekuatan social

Pondok pesantren adalah lembaga pendidikan Islam yang diperkenalkan di Jawa sekitar 500 tahun yang lalu. Sejak saat itu, lembaga pesantren tersebut telah mengalami banyak perubahan dan memainkan berbagai macam peran dalam masyarakat Indonesia[7].

Asumsi yang kita pergunakan adalah jumlah santri yang sebesar 946.945 dan masing masing santri bisa menjadi contoh dan tauladan dalam keluarganya, maka jika dalam 1 keluarga ada 3 orang yang bisa dipengaruhi maka total individu yang berpotensi memiliki pemahaman yang sama adalah 426.125.250.000 orang. Atau sama dengan 2,13 %[8] dari jumlah penduduk secara nasional. Dan ini merupak satu kekuatan yang cukup signifikan untuk melakukan perubahan sosial di masyarakat.

u Pesantren sebagai wadah para ekspert (lembaga Thinkthank)

Pada zaman walisongo, pondok pesantren memainkan peran penting dalam penyebaran agama Islam di pulau Jawa. Juga pada zaman penjajahan Belanda, hampir semua peperangan melawan pemerintah kolonial Belanda bersumber atau paling tidak dapat dukungan sepenuhnya dari pesantren[9] Pondok pesantren membentuk banyak karakteristik dan jenis jenis. Perbedaan jenis-jenis pondok pesantren di Jawa dapat dilihat dari segi ilmu yang diajarkan, jumlah santri, pola kepemimpinan atau perkembangan ilmu teknologi. Lebih lanjut Azyumardi Azra menyatakan pondok pesantren berperan dalam era kebangkitan Islam di Indonesia dan ini terlihat dalam dua dekade terakhir ini.

Namun di balik itu semua, jika kita merujuk pemikir negeri ini dari almarhum Nurkholis Majid, sampai ketua MPR Hidayat Nur Wahid adalah alumni alumni pesantren yang mampu mewarnai kehidupan politik Indonesia. Belum lagi bila kita melihat dengan kaca mata lokal, maka tidak lepas dari tokoh pesantren yang memiliki pemikiran yang cukup brilian dan di segani di daerahnya, seperti KH Ali Masruri dari Sidoarjo dan masih banyak lagi.

u Pesantren sebagai lembaga politik

Menangnya Partai Kebangkitan Bangsa di Jawa Timur tidak lepas dari fungsi politik pesantren, dengan dukungan basis NU yang cukup kental, pesantren pesantren di jawa timur mampu menggerakkan warga di sekitarnya untuk memiliki salah satu partai politik dalam pemilihan umum. Satu kasus yang menarik terjadi di Bondowoso, Kyai Fawaid tidak mendukung partai Kebangkitan Bangsa dan mendukung PPP dan suara PPP dikabupaten ini cukup siqnifikan jika di bandingkan dengan daerah daerah lain, hal ini juga karena peranan pesantren dan kyai sebagai satu lembaga politik.

u Sebagai Agen Perubahan

Fungsi terpenting pesantren adalah sebagai mesin penggerak perubahan di masyarakat. Sejak awal masuknya Islam ke Indonesia, pendidikan Islam merupakan kepentingan tinggi bagi kaum muslimin. Pada masa penjajahan pesantren sebagai agen perubahan sangat terasa, pesantren sebagai ujung tombak perjuangan bangsa yang menyediakan syuhada’ syuhada’ mudah untuk merebut dan mempertahankan kemerdekaan, namun saat ini terasa fungsi ini agak mengendur,

Namun demikian pesantren sebagai penggerak perubahan masyarakat lambat laun tidak bisa di pungkiri, terutama setelah era 90 an dengan semakin di akomodirnya tokoh Islam oleh penguasa Orde baru saat itu. Pesantren sekarang ini dapat dibedakan kepada dua macam, yaitu pesantren tradisional dan pesantren modern. Sistem pendidikan pesantren tradisional sering disebut sistem salafi. Yaitu sistem yang tetap mempertahankan pengajaran kitab-kitab Islam klasik sebagai inti pendidikan di pesantren. Pondok pesantren modern merupakan sistem pendidikan yang berusaha mengintegrasikan secara penuh sistem tradisional dan sistem sekolah formal (seperti madrasah).

Dengan dua pola pendidikan di pesantren seperti inilah yang memberikan balansing di masyarakat dari pemahaman terhadap nilai dan kaidah kaidah Islam kontemporer dan penyesuaiannya dengan perkembangan zaman, saat ini pesantren mulai akrab dengan metodologi ilmiah modern, lebih terbuka atas perkembangan di luar dirinya, diversifikasi program dan kegiatan di pesantren makin terbuka dan luas, dan sudah dapat berfungsi sebagai pusat pengembangan masyarakat[10].

Lebih lanjut Imam Tholkhah menyebutkan , pesantren seharusnya mampu menghidupkan fungsi-fungsi sebagai berikut, 1) pesantren sebagai lembaga pendidikan yang melakukan transfer ilmu-ilmu agama (tafaqquh fi al-din) dan nilai-nilai Islam (Islamic vaues); 2) pesantren sebagai lembaga keagamaan yang melakukan kontrol sosial; dan 3) pesantren sebagai lembaga keagamaan yang melakukan rekayasa sosial (social engineering) atau perkembangan masyarakat (community development). Semua itu, menurutnya hanya bisa dilakukan jika pesantren mampu melakukan proses perawatan tradisi-tradisi yang baik dan sekaligus mengadaptasi perkembangan keilmuan baru yang lebih baik, sehingga mampu memainkan peranan sebagai agent of change.

Penutup

Dalam kondisi masyarakat yang masih cenderung feodal, di mana ketertindasan dan ketidakadilan masih menimpa sebagian besar masyarakat seperti yang diuraikan pada awal makalah ini, peran pesantren yang lebih jelas untuk ikut serta melakukan perubahan-perubahan keadaan merupakan hal yang urgen untuk diwujudkan. Terkecuali jika pesantren memang memiliki prinsip untuk menutup mata terhadap kesadaran-kesadaran palsu yang berkembang, dan atau memilih menjadi pengawet tradisi-tradisi yang dianggap given yang memang telah diterima secara naif oleh masyarakat pada umumnya.

Untuk itu agar pesantren memiliki peranan yang siqnifikan terhadap perkembangan masyarakat, khususnya perannnya terhadap pengembangan perekonomian rakyat maka kami merekomendasikan pesantren untuk:

Pesantren Harus memiliki RENSTRA

Artinya pesantren harus memiliki rencana pengembangan kedepan, baik itu dalam jangka pendek dan jangka menengah dan jangka panjang yang terukur dan terdokumentasi, yang sesuai dengan perkembangan dan tuntutan masyarakat.

Pesantren Harus menjalin Komunikasi dengan lembaga pendidikan “sekuler”

Pesantren saatnya mengembangkan dengan membangun jaringan dengan lembaga lain guna membandingkan, mengkopilasi sistem pendidikan dan membangun kompetisi yang sehat, guna membangun melahirkan pemikir pemikir handal yang bisa bersaing di segala bidang.

Pesantren Harus Akomodatif dengan segala kepentingan masyarakat

Satu fungsi mutlak yang harus di penuhi pesantren adalah mengakomodasi kepentingan masyarakat, jika tidak maka pelan tapi pasti akan di tinggalkan oleh masyarakat. Namun demikian jangan sampai kepentingan masyarakat (khususnya yang kurang ideal bagi pesantren) menunggai pesantren, untuk tujuan tujuan khusus.

Pesantren harus memiliki standart

Pesantren telah lama menjadi lembaga yang memiliki kontribusi yang penting dalam ikut serta mencerdaskan bangsa. Banyaknya jumlah pesantren di Indonesia, serta besarnya jumlah siswa pada tiap pesantren menjadikan pesantren lembaga yang layak diperhitungkan dalam kaitannya dengan pembangunan bangsa di bidang pendidikan dan moral. Perbaikan-perbaikan yang secara terus menerus dilakukan terhadap pesantren, baik dari segi manajemen, akademik (kurikulum) maupun fasilitas menjadikan pesantren keluar dari kesan tradisional dan kolot yang selama ini disandangnya. Beberapa pesantren bahkan telah menjadi model dari lembaga pendidikan yang leading. Salah satu yang menyebabkan pesantren menjadi penting untuk dibicarakan dan diperhitungkan dalam dunia pendidikan adalah karena jangkauannya yang tidak sekadar merambah ranah pesekolahan yang umumnya dijangkau oleh sekolah-sekolah. Pesantren memiliki jangkauan yang lebih luas dari sekadar training di dalam kelas.

Referensi

Biro Pusat Statistik

O'Neil, William.. Ideologi-Ideologi Pendidikan. 2002;Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar

Imam Tholkhah dkk.. Membuka Jendela Pendidikan. 2004;Jakarta: Raja

Grafindo Persada

Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and The Spirit of Capitalism, (1930),London

Zamakhsyari Dhofier, 1985, Tradisi Pesantren: Studi Tentang Pandangan Hidup Kyai, LP3ES, Jakarta.

Hasbullah, Sejarah Pendidikan Islam di Indonesia:Lintasan Sejarah Pertumbuhan dan Perkembangan, 1999; PT Raja Grafindo Persada, Jakarta, (hl 24-27, 138-161)

Zuhairini, dll., Sejarah Pendidikan Islam, 1997; Bumi Aksara, Jakarta.

Azyumardi Azra, Pendidikan Islam: Tradisi dan Modernisasi Menuju Milenium Baru, 2001; Penerbit Kalimah, Jakarta.

Mayra Walsh, Pondok Pesantren Dan Ajaran Golongan Islam Ekstrim, 2002; ACICIS Program Fakultas Ilmu Sosial Dan Politik, Universitas Muhammadiyah Malang

Abdurrahman Wahid, Menggerakkan Tradisi: Esai-Esai Pesantren, 2001; LkiS, Yogyakarta..

Farid Hasyim, Visi Pondok Pesantren Dalam Pengembangan SDM: Studi Kasus di Pondok Pesantren Mahasiswa Al-Hikam, 1998; UMM, Program Pasca Sarjana, Tesis.

Zainal Arifin dan Mudrajad Kuncoro, Konsentrasi Spasial Dan Dinamika Pertumbuhan Industri Manufaktur Di Jawa Timur , Universitas Gajah Mada, Yogyakarta

[1] Max Weber, (1930), The Protestant Ethic and The Spirit of Capitalism, London, 7

[2] BPS, 2004

[3]http://www.jatim.go.id/sekilas_jatim.php?id=010125&t=184704&link2=Produk+Domestik+Regional+Bruto+(PDRB)

[4] ibid

[5] sebagaimana dikutip oleh Mudrajad kuncoro 1999 dalam tulisannya Konsetelasi spasial dan dinamikan pertumbuhan industri manufactur di jawa timur

[6] Zainal Arifin dan Mudrajad Kuncoro, Konsentrasi Spasial Dan Dinamika Pertumbuhan Industri Manufaktur Di Jawa Timur , universitas Gajah Mada, Yogyakarta 1999, h3-4

[7] Mayra Walsh, Pondok Pesantren Dan Ajaran Golongan Islam Ekstrim, 2002; ACICIS Program Fakultas Ilmu Sosial Dan Politik, Universitas Muhammadiyah Malang, h 4

[8] Dengan perkiraan jumlah penduduk sebesar 200.000.000 jiwa

[9] Hasbullah, Sejarah Pendidikan Islam di Indonesia:Lintasan Sejarah Pertumbuhan dan Perkembangan, 1999; PT Raja Grafindo Persada, Jakarta)149.

[10] Ibid, 155

Women’s barriers in public decision-making: an Indonesian parliamentary case study in the last three election resulted (1992, 1997, 2004)

2007-10-25T02:44:00.000-07:00

(This is just rough proposal, any one could give me suggestion or idea)

The position of women in Indonesia society is marginalized, this is not only because the effects of the domination by men, also the women themselves find it difficult to participate in the society. In other words, it can be said that women’s participation in policy-making is still undervalued. This is because of entrenched gender traditional norms, in which the women are placed mostly as housewives. Increasingly, even though the Indonesian political laws state that women composition of the house of representative must comprise at least 30 % the fact is that recently the Indonesian parliament has only around 11% and this number was lower than the previous period which was 12.5%(Iskandar, Latifa, 2007). There is a need therefore to identify and address women’s barriers in public decision-making.

This topic is important because it will develop the awareness not only for the women, but also for the other counter-parts who have positions or power and the responsibility to change policy. Regarding women’s barriers to decision-making, I argue that if women are involved in policy-making in adequate numbers this will force the administrator’s policies to become more considerate not only for the women them selves but also in bringing about more sustainable policy. This is because women basically have been constructed to adopt a more maternal approach. Concerning at this problems, I will identify the barriers which need to be removed for Indonesian women to be more active in public decision-making.

The main methodology that will be used is regulatory impact assessment (RIA). RIA will identify the related laws, what is the background of the regulation, who made these law and their implications for Indonesian society. In order to make a holistic analysis, I also will use an economic value added (EVA) approach for measuring the downside and the advantages for each regulation based on economic considerations.

In identifying the women’s barriers in public decision-making, I will briefly suggest that there is a missing link between the implementation of political law and the insufficient number of women representatives in parliament. Secondly, I indicate that there are deficits in the current education curriculum. This is because the education system has failed to urge women to exercise their right. In addition, most women do not choose the women’s ballot in the elections, they choose male’s ballot based on images and other considerations (Schumaker, Paul & Burns, Nancy Elizabeth, 1988).

Regarding all the reasons above, I will suggest a way of-evaluating the related regulations pertaining to give women more change to be active in public policy-making. Firstly, I will propose that it is necessary to evaluate the instruments of the political law such as; the decisions of the ministry of home affairs related to this matter, the implementation guidance, and the related laws such as the election law, the house of representative law. Secondly, to support the implementation of long-term programs, I will outline the necessary to revision to the education curriculum from primary to higher education in order to improve the gender content.

Globalization and Its relation to providing simple procedures for giving business licensees in Indonesia

2007-10-17T10:12:00.000-07:00

Globalization and Its relation to providing simple procedures for giving business licensees in Indonesia

Of the causes of improvement in the productive power of services and of the order according to which it’s provide is naturally distributed among the different ranks of the clients

Overview

In facing Globalization, countries should prepared “appropriate” policy in order to cope with the changing world that results in competitiveness and rivalry. If countries cannot predict, estimate, or anticipate the world mainstream, they will not get the advantages of being global.

Most people thought that being global is a kind of effort that relates to other parts of worldwide. Globalization is not merely about the integrality of world demand for goods and services, but is also concerned with standards of products and practices. Sklair (2002) remarks that globalization is a kind of social construction for evaluating the state or global mechanism. Moreover, Kochery (1999) says that globalization is a kind of mechanistic process in which countries cannot avoid. They can easily be controlled and modified by “the wielders of power.” This is parallel with certain role to standardize the products and services, such as ISO standard for products and services in world trade that has to be obeyed by all countries and most people knew that the ISO was constructed and modified by OECD countries. This means there are certain quality standards for products and services worldwide.

It is difficult to determine exactly when globalization started, some economists believe that globalization started in 1776 when Adam Smith published his book “An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations”. This book suggested that each country must specialize in the same way as a business does. This means that every country must have at least one tradeable product. As consequence of that, the country must have trade connections with other countries. However, most people believe that it began in the 1980s when Silicon Valley developed and as a result, computer connectivity expansion was amazing. These technologies are reducing the distance among countries.

Nowadays most countries are tied to each other, not only in trade or business, but also through following certain agreements such as GATT or WTO. In Indonesia’s case, for example, after ratifying the GATT agreement and joined in AFTA, Indonesia must prepare itself to deal with free trade among AFTA countries. Based on the decisions made at the Bogor meeting the liberalization of trade and investment should start in 2010 for developed members and in the year 2020 for developing members (Tarmidi 1999; 1). This means that the government has to prepare conducive regulations in order to prepare all sectors to cope with liberation of trade and investment. Moreover, according to the 15 original Uruguay Round subjects, investment measures, services and non tariff barriers cannot be ignored by countries who ratified this agreement because if this agreement is obeyed and implemented it is believed that the agenda can develop conducive climate for making the good and services traffic more transparent among countries (WTO 2007; 1). Because of that, the Indonesian Government must provide procedures for giving business licenses both for foreign and local investment that are clear, cheap, and transparent, not merely to build competitive advantages and attract investment, but also to accelerate the economic growth by providing easy and standardized procedures.

This is congruence with the spirit for providing clear, cheap, and transparent services, especially for investments in autonomy era, Laws 22 and 25/1999 set out task and duties for the local governments, and provide local governments with some financial and human resources to cope with these responsibilities. This law was revised by Law no. 32 and 33/2004, which describes the local government functions and responsibilities. The purpose of this law is to give the local government autonomy to develop their region in accordance with their needs and resources while the central government focuses on strategic and nation-wide policies and the provincial government helps the central government to coordinate local governments within one province. This is because the local governments provide direct services in order to fulfill the communities’ needs. However, the central government still control certain regulations related to investment. In this paper, I will discuss the benefits and the downsides of business licenses being controlled by Central Government and Local Government and consider which the most appropriate authority is.

Long Bureaucracy and overlaps policy

I personally believe that there are at least three problems in the current process of giving investment licenses. Firstly, there are many pungli (unclear retribution, mostly for bribe in order to make the process faster) in licenses process. Secondly, a good will from the head of authority and political pressure from the grassroots are needed. This is because in the democracy era grassroots that vote the head of region can puss the authority to give prime services in basic needs such as health education, licensing process. However, if there is no good will from the head of authority the quality of services just heritage from previous governmental system that was terrible; the last thing is that, public watch, and public consultations are needed to discourage “knowledgeable” bribery.

Most people believe that the Indonesian government is overly bureaucratic, especially in giving business licenses. This claim is supported by the World Bank investment report 2004 cited by Mudrajat (2005; 6), which says it takes 151 days[1] to get new business licenses in Indonesia. This was 7 days shorter then previous year, but three times as long as in Thailand and twice as long as in China (World Bank Brief for the Consultative Group on Indonesia 2003:18). In addition, Mudrajat illustrates the obstacles to investment in 16 categories. The biggest barrier is pungli , a kind of tariff that is collected without proper legal authority. This was mentioned by 20 % of businessmen. The second biggest is the central government services in giving business licenses. This was mentioned by approximately 14% respondents, whereas other factors such as taxes and retributions, raw material scarcity, lack of additional capital, security problems, minimum wages and other issues were chosen by under 10% of respondents. Moreover, the World Bank Consultative Group Report (2003: 17) mentioned that the Indonesian Government is still facing fundamental problems such as increased violence and crime, corruption and bureaucratic delay and inefficiency. These mean that there are bureaucratic problems in giving business licenses in central government. In contrast, Fisman and Gatti (2002:339) concluded in their research that there are negative correlations between decentralization and corruption across a sample of countries. Moreover, they suggest that certain aspects of decentralization such as the fiscal decentralization in government expenditure can bring a positive impact, which is ‘consistently associated with lower measure of corruption across countries’.

Even though in the early terms of decentralization there are many obstacles[2] (the Asia Foundation Newsletter 2005) decentralization is a political breakthrough in delegation of authority to local government. This delegation of authority is related to law 32 /2004 articles 13, clause 1, section N which states that local governments have authority to manage investment including inter-regional investment. Even though this law sets out a minimum standard in giving services, every local government has different standards. Lewis cites the data from KPPOD (Regional Autonomy Watch) and Ministry of Finance, to show almost 433 local laws were reviewed by central government, and 123 local laws were rejected (2003). This means that there are many disputes in understanding between local and central government. Moreover, involving so many institutions in order to manage one license can making it more complex. In addition, it leads to potentially overlapping policies. According to Mudrajat (2005:8), overlapping policies between local and central government not only disturb goods and services mobility but also create a business climate which is not conducive. For example, certain regions that have allowed ‘restribusi jalan’, in which vehicles that transport cattle or other goods in certain regions are subjected to increase the local government income. This not only disturbs goods distribution but also triggers other regions to do something similar. If many regions use ‘restribusi jalan’, it will affect business because it will cause increasing prices and distribution time. This overleaps with the central government law 33/2004 articles 7 mentions that local governments forbid to increase their indigenous income by using certain regulation that can be resulted in high cost economy or in reducing the mobility of goods and services distribution.

Which authority is that the most appropriate to serve the central or local government?

Most people believe that central government is the most appropriate authority to issue business licenses. This is because the central government has the greatest resources to provide public services. They do not merely have control of the financial system but also have control of natural resources management. According to World Bank PREMnotes(2002), Indonesia is the most centralized fiscal system in the world. Moreover, in 1999, the central government collected about 94% of general government revenue.

Since the implementation of decentralization law, the authority not only controlled by the central government but also had been delegated to local government. Law number 32/2004-article number 10 describes the government authority in defense, foreign affairs, monetary and trade policy. This says that central government can delegate authority to minor governance such as provincial governments or ‘Authorized boards’[3], which function as local government coordinators in certain circumstances, since this is not against the constitution. For example, in Batam Island, there are two kinds of authorities. The Local government of Batam has responsibility not only to provide basic needs for Batam residents but also to provide certain investment services and Batam Authorized board have authority to manage investment and businesses in Batam. Nowadays, these two authorities already have an agreement to provide one-stop services in providing business licensees and investments (Radio Singapura International: 2007). The function of authorized board is act as representative of central government in order to generate the investment with special treatments such as giving tax holiday or other incentives. The work mechanism of this board is looks like private company but have to give direct report annually to the central government difference with the provincial or local administrator.

The implementation of autonomy gave local governments’ wider authority in some sectors. Authority for giving investment permission is one of those sectors. Theoretically, this policy will bring a lot of advantages, particularly for small businesses. Base on several researches (Hofman, et all 2003; Smeru, 2001; Ray, 2002, 2003 cited in Mudrajat) indicate the implementation of autonomy have been made the investment climate condition worse. This claim mostly happened in each region. This is because the local administrator cannot make scale of prioritize in their policy. For example, the local administrator prefers to give funding for a football club rather than add to the budget for education or health. Moreover, there is no significant law enforcement to reduce bribery and uncertainty in giving business permissions. What is more, Fisman and Gatti (2002:326) show that the qualities of government in giving services are generally developed by decentralization. This means that, even though decentralization of authority is still in process, as time passes it will bring more advantages for societies compared with a centralistic system. I personally agree with Fisman and Gatti that decentralization is the right choice because local government is likely to cope more easily with the grass roots aspiration then the central government

Good Practices in certain regions

The relationship between local government and grass roots is positive because not only is local government the closets level of government that can give services directly for people, but also local government is the most competent governmental level in giving services. Some regions innovate to provide good services, such as Sidoarjo regencies. In Sidoarjo there is a special licensing and investment boards called “Dinas Perijinan dan Penanaman Modal (DPPM) Kabupaten Sidoarjo”(www.sidoarjokab.go.id). The paradigm of this board is different from other governmental board, for example, The DPPM staff wears a ‘customer friendly uniform’ where the others institution wear more ‘bureaucratic style’ uniform. Moreover, this board issues a Book of Licensing Procedures and Investment Opportunity, a licensing catalogue, a leaflet, and a VCD, that can be accessed easily. (The Asia Foundation-IRDA2nd 2002) In order to measure customer satisfaction, this board conducts an annual Consumer’s Satisfaction Survey and has an interactive on-air complaint service through radio every other month. (The Asia Foundation-IRDA2nd ibid). Moreover, DPPM Sidoarjo regency is the first Indonesian Government institution who achieved the ISO on Management and quality control in 2002.

The results of providing an integrated board for servicing licensing and investment were amazing, such as increasing the number of businesses who registered. This is a good achievement because, according to the World Bank Brief for Consultative Group for Indonesia, there are almost 15 million small and medium establishments without legal status in Indonesia. This means there are a lot of businesses that cannot get access to bank credit. Moreover, these enterprises employ around 55.6 million or 62 % of the labor force. Increasing numbers of small and medium enterprises registered in Sidoarjo, Bogor, Bandung and Bekasi. Moreover, in Bandung, the government revenue increases until approximately 20 billion rupiah in five years. In addition, in Bekasi, the government earning increase from approximately 3 billion rupiah in 1999 to more then 10 billion in 2003. (The Asia Foundation Newsletter 2005)

Integrating standards and differentiate of investment as possible solution

Because of differences among Indonesian regions in facing globalization, decentralization and giving prime services on business licenses, it is difficult to make appropriate recommendations. One policy might be good in a certain region, but it might not be maximal in another region. Nevertheless, the main point is that it is important to generate investments in each region in order to cope with the global investment era. If we are not ready with appropriate instruments, Indonesia will be left behind. The essential thing is, government should delegate their responsibility in order to generate investments in every region. This is parallel with World Bank’s opinion that simultaneous political, administrative and fiscal decentralization is difficult to manage but these can determine the pace and manner of resources devolution.

Firstly, repositioning of central government is needed. The function of central government as “mapping guide” to giving guidance on investment which regions as the best places for business must be definitive and clear. This does not mean “castrating” the central government. The government must have mapped the regions’ potentials. What kind of investments meets local needs and what local resources can support the investment itself. Secondly, even though local government is the main actor in investment, we still need the central government recommendation to establish investment; therefore, the central government should make clear and definitive regulations on minimum standard services. Thirdly, the government should give them incentives for local small and medium enterprises to make more competitive. Last but not least, there must be integrated and coordinated policy among central and local governments, in order to reducing overlapping policies on investment.

All in all, globalization has affected in positive way in policymaking, such as there are standard services and clear procedures in processing business licenses. In addition, as globalization provides great opportunities for investments, the government should improve their performances and services in order to attract both local and foreign investors. Some cases in Indonesia, this is related to autonomy which means that the central government delegates their authority to local administrators to make process simple. Hopefully these processes are still running until reach the best effort that ever made.

Word Accounts: 2531

Bibliography

‘Doing Business in Indonesia’ 2006, The World Bank Group, viewed 5 March 2007, http://www.doingbusiness.org/ExploreEconomies/?economyid=90

Fisher, RW 2005, Globalization and government policy, Remarks at the Fifth Annual Federal Reserve Bank of Philadelphia policy forum, viewed 08 February 2007, http://www.phil.frb.org/econ/conf/forum2005/fisher_speech_policy_forum_12-2-2005pdf

Fisman, R and Gatti, R 2002, ‘Decentralization and corruption: evidence across countries’ Journal of Public Economics 83, viewed 27 February 2007, http://www2.gsb.columbia.edu/faculty/rfisman/decentralization_and_corruption.pdf.

Indonesian Law 32/2004 about Local government

Indonesia Law 33/2004 about Financial balancing between central and local government

‘Indonesia Maintaining Stability, Deepening Reforms’ 2003, World Bank Brief for the Consultative Group on Indonesia. Viewed 26 February 2007, http://lnweb18.worldbank.org/eap/eap.nsf/Attachments/011603_12CGIBrief/$File/011603_12CGIBrief.pdf

‘Indonesia Rapid Decentralization Appraisal second report’ 2002, The Asia Foundation, viewed 08 March 2007, http://www.asiafoundation.org/pdf/IRDA_Report2_english.PDF

Indonesia’s decentralization after crisis 2000, the World Bank PREMnotes public sector number 43, viewed 26 February 2007, http://wbln0018.worldbank.org/network/prem/premdoclib.nsf/bd91d6367a919423852566c60075af49/1b3b88f3fd778409852569cf00799d6a/$FILE/Indonesia.pdf

Kocherry, T 1999, Globalization needs a deeper understanding, Sophie Prize acceptance speech, viewed 16 February 2007, http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/25a/064.html

Lewis, BD 2003, Some Empirical Evidence on new Regional Taxes and charges in Indonesia, Research Triangle Institute, North Carolina, viewed 26 February 2007, http://www.gtzsfdm.or.id/documents/dec_ind/o_pa_doc/BLewis_RegionalTaxesCharges_Jan2003.pdf

‘MOU Akhiri Tumpang Tindih pengelolaa Batam’ 2006 Radio Singapore International, viewed 27 February 2007, http://www.rsi.sg/indonesian/wacanaindonesia/view/200610022110

Mudrajat K 2005, ‘Menanti reformasi Iklim Investasi/Bisnis di Indonesia’, viewed 26 February 2007, http://www.mudrajad.com/upload/publications_menanti-iklim-investasi-bisnis.pdf

Sklair,L 2002,Globalization Capitalism & Its Alternatives, Oxford University Press

‘Streamlining Business Licensing: An Evaluation of The Impact of One-Stop centers’ 2005 The Asia Foundation Newsletters, viewed 08 March 2007, www.asiafoundation.org/pdf/Indo_streambiz_eng.pdf

Tarmidi, L T 1999, APEC After ten year: a view from Indonesia, APEC Study Centre, University of Indonesia, viewed 23 February 2007, http://www2.auckland.ac.nz/apec/papers/tarmidi.html

WTO, The Uruguay Round, viewed 23 February 2007, http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/tif_e/fact5_ehtm

www.sidoarjokab.go.id

[1] There are various measurement about getting new business licensees such as World bank 2003 mentioned 158 days, Doing business World Bank 2006 mentioned 97 days in starting a business and 224 days dealing with licenses

[2] Such as there are huge number of institutions are authorized in giving licenses; secondly, there are many procedures that have to be followed and many inconsistent requirements. The next problem is that there is no minimum standard in terms of time and cost. The last problem is that, there is weak law enforcement to restrain corrupt practice.

[3] Law number 32/2004-article number 9 describes authorized region that functioned as the centre of trades, investments and International port